Cotton Crop and Cotton Industry

About Manmade Fibers Manufacturing Process

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Glossary of Various Synthetic Fibers

Most synthetic manufactured fibers are created by "extrusion" - forcing a thick, viscous liquid (about the consistency of cold honey) through the tiny holes of a device called a spinneret to form continuous filaments of semi-solid polymer.

In their initial state, the fiber-forming polymers are solids and therefore must be first converted into a fluid state for extrusion. This is usually achieved by melting, if the polymers are thermoplastic synthetics (i.e., they soften and melt when heated), or by dissolving them in a suitable solvent if they are non-thermoplastic cellulosics. If they cannot be dissolved or melted directly, they must be chemically treated to form soluble or thermoplastic derivatives.

Recent technologies have been developed for some specialty fibers made of polymers that do not melt, dissolve, or form appropriate derivatives. For these materials, the small fluid molecules are mixed and reacted to form the otherwise intractable polymers during the extrusion process

Nylon

Nylon is a generic designation for a family of synthetic polymers known generically as polyamides and first produced on February 28, 1935 by Wallace Carothers at DuPont. Nylon is one of the most commonly used polymers

Density  - 1.15g/cm³

Electrical conductivity (σ) - 10-12S/m

Thermal conductivity 0.25W/(m·K), 463 K-624 K

Melting point 190°C-350°C or  374°F-663°F

Overview

Nylon is a thermoplastic silky material, first used commercially in a nylon-bristled toothbrush (1938), followed more famously by women's stockings ("nylons"; 1940). It is made of repeating units linked by peptide bonds (another name for amide bonds) and is frequently referred to as polyamide (PA). Nylon was the first commercially successful synthetic polymer. There are two common methods of making nylon for fiber applications. In one approach, molecules with an acid (COOH) group on each end are reacted with molecules containing amine (NH2) groups on each end. The resulting nylon is named on the basis of the number of carbon atoms separating the two acid groups and the two amines. These are formed into monomers of intermediate molecular weight, which are then reacted to form long polymer chains.

Nylon was intended to be a synthetic replacement for silk and substituted for it in many different products after silk became scarce during World War II. It replaced silk in military applications such as parachutes and flak vests, and was used in many types of vehicle tires.

Nylon fibers are used in many applications, including fabrics, bridal veils, carpets, musical strings, and rope.

Solid nylon is used for mechanical parts such as machine screws, gears and other low- to medium-stress components previously cast in metal. Engineering-grade nylon is processed by extrusion, casting, and injection molding. Solid nylon is used in hair combs. Type 6/6 Nylon 101 is the most common commercial grade of nylon, and Nylon 6 is the most common commercial grade of molded nylon. Nylon is available in glass-filled variants which increase structural and impact strength and rigidity, and molybdenum sulfide-filled variants which increase lubricity.

Chemistry

Nylons are condensation copolymers formed by reacting equal parts of a diamine and a dicarboxylic acid, so that peptide bonds form at both ends of each monomer in a process analogous to polypeptide biopolymers.

Chemical elements included are carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen. The numerical suffix specifies the numbers of carbons donated by the monomers; the diamine first and the diacid second. The most common variant is nylon 6-6 which refers to the fact that the diamine (hexamethylene diamine) and the diacid (adipic acid) each donate 6 carbons to the polymer chain. As with other regular copolymers like polyesters and polyurethanes, the "repeating unit" consists of one of each monomer, so that they alternate in the chain. Since each monomer in this copolymer has the same reactive group on both ends, the direction of the amide bond reverses between each monomer, unlike natural polyamide proteins which have overall directionality: Cterminal→ Nterminal.

In the laboratory, nylon6-6 can also be made using adipoyl chloride instead of adipic. It is difficult to get the proportions exactly correct, and deviations can lead to chain termination at molecular weights less than a desirable 10,000 daltons (u). To overcome this problem, a crystalline, solid "nylon salt" can be formed at room temperature, using an exact 1:1 ratio of the acid and the base to neutralize each other. Heated to 285 °C, the salt reacts to form nylon polymer. Above 20,000 daltons, it is impossible to spin the chains into yarn, so to combat this, some acetic acid is added to react with a free amine end group during polymer elongation to limit the molecular weight. In practice, and especially for 6,6, the monomers are often combined in a water solution. The water used to make the solution is evaporated under controlledconditions, and the increasing concentration of "salt" is polymerized to the final molecular weight.

DuPont patented[1] nylon6,6, so in order to compete, other companies (particularly the German BASF) developed the homopolymer nylon6, or polycaprolactam - not a condensation polymer, but formed by a ring-opening polymerization (alternatively made by polymerizing aminocaproic acid). The peptide bond within the caprolactam is broken with the exposed active groups on each side being incorporated into two new bonds as the monomer becomes part of the polymer backbone. In this case, all amide bonds lie in the same direction, but the properties of nylon6 are sometimes indistinguishable from those of nylon6,6 - except for melt temperature (N6 is lower) and some fiber properties in products like carpets and textiles. There is also nylon9.

Nylon5,10, made from pentamethylene diamine and sebacic acid, was studied by Carothers even before nylon6,6 and has superior properties, but is more expensive to make. In keeping with this naming convention, "nylon6,12" (N-6,12) or "PA-6,12" is a copolymer of a 6C diamine and a 12C diacid. Similarly for N-5,10 N-6,11; N-10,12, etc. Other nylons include copolymerized dicarboxylic acid/diamine products that are not based upon the monomers listed above. For example, some aromatic nylons are polymerized with the addition of diacids like terephthalic acid (→ Kevlar) or isophthalic acid (→ Nomex), more commonly associated with polyesters. There are copolymers of N-6,6/N6; copolymers of N-6,6/N-6/N-12; and others. Because of the way polyamides are formed, nylon would seem to be limited to unbranched, straight chains. But "star" branched nylon can be produced by the condensation of dicarboxylic acids with polyamines having three or more amino groups.

Basic Concepts of Nylon Production

The first approach:

• combining molecules with an acid (COOH) group on each end are reacted with two chemicals that contain amine (NH2) groups on each end.

This process creates nylon 6,6, made of hexamethylene diamine with six carbon atoms and acidipic acid, as well as six carbon atoms.

The second approach:

• a compound has an acid at one end and an amine at the other and is polymerized to form a chain with repeating units of (-NH-[CH2]n-CO-)x.

• In other words, nylon 6 is made from a single six-carbon substance called caprolactam.

• In this equation, if n=5, then nylon 6 is the assigned name. (may also be referred to as polymer)

Nylon 6,6

• Pleats and creases can be heat-set at higher temperatures

• Nylon 6 is very easy to dye, but Nylon 6,6 is not

Nylon 6

• Better dye Affinity

• Softer Hand

Characteristics

• Variation of luster: nylon has the ability to be very lustrous, semilustrous or dull.

• Durability: its high tenacity fibers are used for seatbelts, tire cords, ballistic cloth and other uses.

• High elongation

• Excellent abrasion resistance

• Highly resilient (nylon fabrics are heat-set)

• Paved the way for easy-care garments

• High resistance to: insects, fungi and animals,molds, mildew, rot,many chemicals

• Used in carpets and nylon stockings

• Melts instead of burning

• Used in many military applications

Spandex

Spandex-or elastane-is a synthetic fiber known for its exceptional elasticity. It is stronger and more durable than rubber, its major non-synthetic competitor. It was invented in 1959 by DuPont chemist Joseph Shivers. When first introduced, it revolutionized many areas of the clothing industry.

"Spandex" is a generic name and not derived from the chemical name of the fiber, as are most manufactured fibers, but an extension of the word expand."Spandex" is the preferred name in North America; elsewhere it is referred to as "elastane"

Spandex fiber production

Spandex fibers are produced in four different ways, including melt extrusion, reaction spinning, solution dry spinning, and solution wet spinning. All of these methods include the initial step of reacting monomers to produce a prepolymer. Once the prepolymer is formed, it is reacted further in various ways and drawn out to produce a long fiber. The solution dry spinning method is used to produce over 90% of the world's spandex fibers.

Solution dry spinning

Step 1: The first step is to produce the prepolymer. This is done by mixing a macroglycol with a diisocyanate monomer. The two compounds are mixed together in a reaction vessel to produce a prepolymer. A typical ratio of glycol to diisocyanate is 1:2.

Step 2: The prepolymer is further reacted with an equal amount of diamine. This reaction is known as chain extension reaction. The resulting solution is diluted with a solvent to produce the spinning solution. The solvent helps make the solution thinner and more easily handled, and then it can be pumped into the fiber production cell.

Step 3: The spinning solution is pumped into a cylindrical spinning cell where it is cured and converted into fibers. In this cell, the polymer solution is forced through a metal plate called a spinneret. This causes the solution to be aligned in strands of liquid polymer. As the strands pass through the cell, they are heated in the presence of a nitrogen and solvent gas. This process causes the liquid polymer to react chemically and form solid strands.

Step 4: As the fibers exit the cell, an amount of solid strands are bundled together to produce the desired thickness. Each fiber of spandex is made up of many smaller individual fibers that adhere to one another due to the natural stickiness of their surface.

Step 5: The resulting fibers are then treated with a finishing agent which can be magnesium stearate or another polymer. This treatment prevents the fibers' sticking together and aids in textile manufacture. The fibers are then transferred through a series of rollers onto a spool.

Step 6: When the spools are filled with fiber, they are put into final packaging and shipped to textile manufacturers.

Major spandex fiber uses

Apparel and clothing articles where stretch is desired, generally for comfort and fit, such as:

athletic, aerobic, and exercise apparel

wetsuitss

wimsuits/bathing suits

competitive swimwear

netball bodysuits

brassiere straps and bra side panels

ski pants

disco jeanss

lacks

hosiery

leggings

socks

diapers

skinny jeans

belts

underwear

dance belts worn by male ballet dancers and others

Compression garments such as:

surgical hose

support hose

cycling shorts

wrestling singlet

one piece rowing suits

foundation garments

motion capture suits

Shaped garments such as

bra cups

Home furnishings, such as microbead pillows

Spandex Fiber Characteristics

• Can be stretched repeatedly and still recover to very near its original length and shape

• Generally, can be stretched more than 500% without breaking

• Stronger, more durable and higher retractive force than rubber

• Lightweight, soft, smooth, supple

• In garments, provides a combination of comfort and fit, prevents bagging and sagging

• Heat-settable - facilitates transforming puckered fabrics into flat fabrics, or flat fabrics into permanent rounded shapes

• Dyeable

• Resistant to deterioration by body oils, perspiration, lotions or detergents

• Abrasion resistant

• When fabrics containing spandex are sewn, the needle causes little or no damage from "needle cutting" compared to the older types of elastic materials

• Available in fiber diameters ranging from 10 denier to 2500 denier

• Available in clear and opaque lusters

 

Acrylic

Basic Principles of Acrylic Fiber Production

Acrylic fibers are produced from acrylonitrile, a petrochemical. The acrylonitrile is usually combined with small amounts of other chemicals to improve the ability of the resulting fiber to absorb dyes. Some acrylic fibers are dry spun and others are wet spun. Acrylic fibers are used in staple or tow form.

Acrylic Fiber Characteristics

• Outstanding wickability & quick drying to move moisture from body surface

• Flexible aesthetics for wool-like, cotton-like, or blended appearance

• Easily washed, retains shape

• Resistant to moths, oil, and chemicals

• Dyeable to bright shades with excellent fastness

• Superior resistance to sunlight degradation

Some Major Acrylic Fiber Uses

Apparel: Sweaters, socks, fleece wear, circular knit apparel, sportswear and childrens wear

Home Furnishings: Blankets, area rugs, upholstery, pile; luggage, awnings, outdoor furniture

Other Uses: Craft yarns, sail cover cloth, wipe cloths

Industrial Uses: Asbestos replacement; concrete and stucco reinforcement

Aramid

Aramid fibers are a class of heat-resistant and strong synthetic fibers. They are used in aerospace and military applications, for ballistic rated body armor fabric, and as an asbestos substitute. The name is a shortened form of "aromatic polyamide". They are fibers in which the chain molecules are highly oriented along the fiber axis, so the strength of the chemical bond can be exploited.

History

Aromatic polyamides were first introduced in commercial applications in the early 1960s, with a meta-aramid fiber produced by DuPont under the tradename Nomex. This fiber, which handles similarly to normal textile apparel fibers, is characterized by its excellent resistance to heat, as it neither melts nor ignites in normal levels of oxygen. It is used extensively in the production of protective apparel, air filtration, thermal and electrical insulation as well as a substitute for asbestos. Meta-aramid is also produced in the Netherlands and Japan by Teijin under the tradename Teijinconex, in China by Yantai under the tradename New Star and a variant of meta-aramid in France by Kermel under the tradename Kermel.

Based on earlier research by Monsanto and Bayer, a fiber - para-aramid - with much higher tenacity and elastic modulus was also developed in the 1960s-1970s by DuPont and Akzo Nobel, both profiting from their knowledge of rayon, polyester and nylon processing.

Polymer preparation

Aramids are generally prepared by the reaction between an amine group and a carboxylic acid halide group. Simple AB homopolymers may look like:

nNH2-Ar-COCl → -(NH-Ar-CO)n- + nHCl

The most well-known aramids (Nomex, Kevlar, Twaron and New Star) are AABB polymers. Nomex, New Star and Teijinconex contain predominantly the meta-linkage and are poly-metaphenylene isophtalamides (MPIA). Kevlar and Twaron are both p-phenylene terephtalamides (PPTA), the simplest form of the AABB para-polyaramide. PPTA is a product of p-phenylene diamine (PPD) and terephtaloyl dichloride (TDC or TCl). Production of PPTA relies on a co-solvent with an ionic component (calcium chloride (CaCl2)) to occupy the hydrogen bonds of the amide groups, and an organic component (N-methyl pyrrolidone (NMP)) to dissolve the aromatic polymer. Prior to the invention of this process by Leo Vollbracht, who worked at the Dutch chemical firm Akzo, no practical means of dissolving the polymer was known. The use of this system led to a patent war between Akzo and DuPont.

Spinning

After production of the polymer, the aramid fiber is produced by spinning the solved polymer to a solid fiber from a liquid chemical blend. Polymer solvent for spinning PPTA is generally 100% (water free) sulfuric acid (H2SO4).

Appearances

Fiber,Chopped fiber,Powder, Pulp

Aramid fiber characteristics

• good resistance to abrasion

• good resistance to organic solvents

• nonconductive

• no melting point, degradation starts from 500°C

• low flammability

• good fabric integrity at elevated temperatures

• sensitive to acids and salts

• sensitive to ultraviolet radiation

• prone to static build-up unless finished

Major industrial uses

flame-resistant clothing

heat protective clothing and helmets

body armor, competing with PE based fiber products such as Dyneema and Spectra

composite materials

asbestos replacement (e.g. braking pads)

hot air filtration fabrics

tires, newly as Sulfron (sulfur modified Twaron)

mechanical rubber goods reinforcement

ropes and cables

wicks for fire dancing

optical fiber cable systems

sail cloth (not necessarily racing boat sails)

sporting goods

drumheads

wind instrument reeds, such as the Fibracell

brandspeaker woofers

boathull material

fiber reinforced concrete

reinforced thermoplastic pipes

tennis strings (e.g. by Ashaway and Prince tennis companies)

hockey sticks (normally in composition with such materials as wood and carbon)

Polyurethane

A polyurethane, commonly abbreviated PU, is any polymer consisting of a chain of organic units joined by urethane (carbamate) links. Polyurethane polymers are formed through step-growth polymerization by reacting a monomer containing at least two isocyanate functional groups with another monomer containing at least two hydroxyl (alcohol) groups in the presence of a catalyst.

Raw materials

For the manufacture of polyurethane polymers, two groups of at least bifunctional substances are needed as reactants; compounds with isocyanate groups, and compounds with active hydrogen atoms. The physical and chemical character, structure, and molecular size of these compounds influence the polymerization reaction, as well as ease of processing and final physical properties of the finished polyurethane. In addition, additive such as catalysts, surfactants, blowing agents, cross linkers, flame retardants, light stabilizers, and fillers are used to control and modify the reaction process and performance characteristics of the polymer.

Production

The main polyurethane producing reaction is between a diisocyanate (aromatic and aliphatic types are available) and a polyol, typically a polypropylene glycol or polyester polyol, in the presence of catalysts and materials for controlling the cell structure, (surfactants) in the case of foams. Polyurethane can be made in a variety of densities and hardnesses by varying the type of monomer(s) used and adding other substances to modify their characteristics, notably density, or enhance their performance. Other additives can be used to improve the fire performance, stability in difficult chemical environments and other properties of the polyurethane products.

Though the properties of the polyurethane are determined mainly by the choice of polyol, the diisocyanate exerts some influence, and must be suited to the application. The cure rate is influenced by the functional group reactivity and the number of functional isocyanate groups. The mechanical properties are influenced by the functionality and the molecular shape. The choice of diisocyanate also affects the stability of the polyurethane upon exposure to light. Polyurethanes made with aromatic diisocyanates yellow with exposure to light, whereas those made with aliphatic diisocyanates are stable.[24]

Softer, elastic, and more flexible polyurethanes result when linear difunctional polyethylene glycol segments, commonly called polyether polyols, are used to create the urethane links. This strategy is used to make spandex elastomeric fibers and soft rubber parts, as well as foam rubber. More rigid products result if polyfunctional polyols are used, as these create a three-dimensional cross-linked structure which, again, can be in the form of a low-density foam.

An even more rigid foam can be made with the use of specialty trimerization catalysts which create cyclic structures within the foam matrix, giving a harder, more thermally stable structure, designated as polyisocyanurate foams. Such properties are desired in rigid foam products used in the construction sector.

Careful control of viscoelastic properties - by modifying the catalysts and polyols used -can lead to memory foam, which is much softer at skin temperature than at room temperature.

There are then two main foam variants: one in which most of the foam bubbles (cells) remain closed, and the gas(es) remains trapped, the other being systems which have mostly open cells, resulting after a critical stage in the foam-making process (if cells did not form, or became open too soon, foam would not be created). This is a vitally important process: if the flexible foams have closed cells, their softness is severely compromised, they become pneumatic in feel, rather than soft; so, generally speaking, flexible foams are required to be open-celled.

The opposite is the case with most rigid foams. Here, retention of the cell gas is desired since this gas (especially the fluorocarbons referred to above) gives the foams their key characteristic: high thermal insulation performance.

A third foam variant, called microcellular foam, yields the tough elastomeric materials typically experienced in the coverings of car steering wheels and other interior automotive components.

Manufacturing

The methods of manufacturing polyurethane finished goods range from small, hand pour piece-part operations to large, high-volume bunstock and boardstock production lines. Regardless of the end-product, the manufacturing principle is the same: to meter the liquid isocyanate and resin blend at a specified stoichiometric ratio, mix them together until a homogeneous blend is obtained, dispense the reacting liquid into a mold or on to a surface, wait until it cures, then demold the finished part.

Dispense Equipment Although the capital outlay can be high, it is desirable to use a meter-mix or dispense unit for even low-volume production operations that require a steady output of finished parts. Dispense equipment consists of material holding (day) tanks, metering pumps, a mix head, and a control unit. Often, a conditioning or heater-chiller unit is added to control material temperature in order to improve mix efficiency, cure rate, and to reduce process variability. Choice of dispense equipment components depends on shot size, throughput, material characteristics such as viscosity and filler content, and process control.

Material day tanks may be single to hundreds of gallons in size, and may be supplied directly from drums, IBCs (intermediate bulk containers, such as totes), or bulk storage tanks. They may incorporate level sensors, conditioning jackets, and mixers. Pumps can be sized to meter in single grams per second up to hundreds of pounds per minute. They can be rotary, gear, or piston pumps, or can be specially hardened lance pumps to meter liquids containing highly abrasive fillers such as wollastonite.

The pumps can drive low-pressure (10 to 30 bar) or high-pressure (125 to 200 bar) dispense systems. Mix heads can be simple static mix tubes, rotary element mixers, low-pressure dynamic mixers, or high-pressure hydraulically actuated direct impingement mixers. Control units may have basic on/off - dispense/stop switches, and analogue pressure and temperature gages, or may be computer controlled with flow meters to electronically calibrate mix ratio, digital temperature and level sensors, and a full suite of statistical process control software. Add-ons to dispense equipment include nucleation or gas injection units, and third or fourth stream capability for adding pigments or metering in supplemental additive packages.

Tooling

Distinct from pour-in-place, bun and boardstock, and coating applications, the production of piece parts requires some type of tooling to contain and form the reacting liquid. The choice of mold making material is dependent on the expected number of uses to end-of-life (EOL), molding pressure, flexibility, and heat transfer characteristics. RTV silicone is used for tooling that has an EOL in the thousands of parts. It is typically used for molding rigid foam parts, where the ability to stretch and peel the mold around undercuts is needed.

The heat transfer characteristic of RTV silicone tooling is poor. High-performance flexible polyurethane elastomers are also used in this way. Epoxy, metal-filled epoxy, and metal-coated epoxy is used for tooling that has an EOL in the tens-of-thousands of parts. It is typically used for molding flexible foam cushions and seating, integral skin and microcellular foam padding, and shallow-draft RIM bezels and fascia. The heat transfer characteristic of epoxy tooling is fair; the heat transfer characteristic of metal-filled and metal-coated epoxy is good. Copper tubing can be incorporated into the body of the tool, allowing hot water to circulate and heat the mold surface.

Aluminum is used for tooling that has an EOL in the hundreds-of-thousands of parts. It is typically used for molding microcellular foam gasketing and cast elastomer parts, and is milled or extruded into shape. Mirror finish stainless steel is used for tooling that imparts a glossy appearance to the finished part. The heat transfer characteristic of metal tooling is excellent. Finally, molded or milled polypropylene is used to create low-volume tooling for molded gasket applications. Instead of many expensive metal molds, low-cost plastic tooling can be formed from a single metal master, which also allows greater design flexibility. The heat transfer characteristic of polypropylene tooling is poor, which must be taken into consideration during the formulation process.

Polyurethane uses

Polyurethane products have many uses. Over three quarters of the global consumption of polyurethane products is in the form of foams, with flexible and rigid types being roughly equal in market size. In both cases, the foam is usually behind other materials:

• Flexible foams are behind upholstery fabrics in commercial and domestic furniture

• Rigid foams are inside the metal and plastic walls of most refrigerators and freezers, or behind paper, metals and other surface materials in the case of thermal insulation panels in the construction sector.

Its use in garments is growing:

• In lining the cups of brassieres.

• Polyurethane is also used for moldings which include door frames, columns, balusters, window headers, pediments, medallions and rosettes.

• Polyurethane is also used in the concrete construction industry to create formliners. Polyurethane formliners serves as a mold for concrete, creating a variety of textures and art.

The precursors of expanding polyurethane foam are available in many forms, for use in insulation, sound deadening, flotation, industrial coatings, packing material, and even cast-in-place upholstery padding. Since they adhere to most surfaces and automatically fill voids, they have become quite popular in these applications

World Bank Activities in Cotton Sector

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The World Bank Group has undertaken cotton-related activities in several developing countries. Traditionally, the Bank's involvement has taken the following forms: lending to support the cotton sector-for both investment and technical assistance-either from IBRD loans or IDA credits; and policy advice through economic and sector work, usually linked to policy reforms associated with quick-disbursing loans and credits.

Lending and Technical Assistance Projects

The World Bank has approved a number of cotton-related investment and adjustment op-erations. Two operations were approved during the 1990s. Approved in 1994 for a total of US$14 million, the Cotton Development Project in Uganda sought to improve performance in the cotton industry through liberalization of cotton processing and export marketing; establish an efficient regulatory framework for the cotton industry; and improve manage-rial, technical, and operating efficiency in a creditworthy ginning industry. The project also sought to improve efficiency of supporting services through support for national re-search and extension programs and also to improve delivery mechanisms and availability of credit and seeds. Approved in 1995 in the amount of US$66 million, the Cotton Im-provement Project in Uzbekistan was designed to liberalize prices of cotton seed, bring producer prices for seed cotton marketed under the state system closer to international prices, create a private cotton-planting industry, eliminate input subsidies, and shift cotton trade from barter-based to cash-based transactions.

More recently, the World Bank made loans in West and Central Africa that had components directly or indirectly affecting the cotton sector. The Cotton Sector Reform Project in Benin (approved in 2002), is expected to facilitate transition to a competitive sys-tem through support of private sector operations and institutional change resulting from the privatization of the National Company for Agricultural Promotion's (SONAPRA) gin-ning activities. This project component's main focus is supporting the institutions involved in cotton ginning and primary marketing to help them become strong and effective. Tech-nical assistance and advisory services will cover management responsibilities, auditing, and financing operations, including training for institutional capacity building. Further-more, the project will support the implementation of sectorwide technical-service pro-grams to help the private sector take over the agricultural services and other technical support functions carried out by SONAPRA. The effort to privatize SONAPRA's ginning plants includes assistance and advisory services, notably to address social issues and the financial needs of the government's conversion program.

The Second Poverty Reduction Support Credit Project in Burkina Faso, approved in 2002, is an integral part of the Country Assistance Strategy to support the implementation of the Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP). It is the second in a series of three planned operations.

The project is designed to help the government achieve better out-comes in public resource management by

(i) strengthening program budgets and linking allocations to specific sector objectives, strategies, and action plans

(ii) improving service delivery in education, health, and rural development and

(iii) strengthening the fiduciary framework to promote accountability and transparency in the use of public funds, includ-ing external aid.

In the context of its rural development component, the government, in collaboration with the World Bank, will closely monitor the poverty impact of cotton liber-alization in the medium-term and take corrective measures if necessary. An upcoming PRSC III program ($50 million) is expected to continue to foster the reform process in the cotton sector by supporting participatory mechanisms for developing the rules and condi-tions governing the opening of two cotton zones to private investors, awarding the con-tracts, and addressing issues related to input financing.

The Structural Adjustment Credit Project V in Chad, approved in 2003, is designed to support the cotton-sector reform program. Its primary goal is to improve the livelihoods of about 300,000 poor families. Given the complexity of the reform program, which is be-ing introduced in a context of depressed world cotton prices and barely functioning rural markets, it will be a challenge to ensure the program's consistency with its stated objective. To overcome this risk, a study has been carried out to identify the most appropriate sce-nario for the state's divestiture from Cotontchad. Moreover, an extensive ex-ante and ex-post poverty and social impact analysis is being completed, the results of which will feed into the design of the reform program and allow for ex-post adjustments if necessary.

The Third Structural Adjustment Credit in Mali, approved in 2001 and currently under way, supports

(i) recovery and restructuring of the cotton sector to restore positive economic growth and

(ii) public expenditure reforms aimed specifically at advancing the government's poverty reduction objectives.

The government has laid out its policy for re-forming and liberalizing the cotton sector, including a plan to privatize the cotton com-pany's agro-industrial and commercial activities. The first phase of the project includes ini-tial divestment activities and design of a full sector-liberalization program. The restructur-ing program will necessarily span several years and require an effort to create an appro-priate framework to attract private capital and know-how and to build the capacities of key participants, notably the farmers' organizations. Reinforcement of the capacity of farmers' organizations to play an increasing role in the management of the cotton sector will be provided separately.

Finally, under the Agricultural Services and Producer Organizations Project, ap-proved in 2001, the authorities in Mali expect to implement the first phase of the reform program. Its objectives were to

(i) restore the cotton company's financial stability so as to allow it to secure financing for the forthcoming crop season

(ii) achieve efficiency gains in the cotton company through restructuring and divestment of non-core activities

(iii) di-vest to the private sector the cotton collection and marketing activities in one cotton grow-ing area

(iv) privatize the cotton-oil company

(v) assure that the producer price of cotton for the 2001-02 crop year was high enough so that confidence of the farmers would be maintained, compensate for the heavy losses in rural incomes suffered in 2000-01, and re-dress the impact on rural poverty and

(vi) define and prepare the final phase of the sec-toral reform program.

Non-Lending Activities

In addition to its lending operations, the World Bank has engaged in non-lending activities that include policy advice, sector work, dissemination activities, and, more recently, price-risk management.

The World Bank has been active in assisting the reform process in the cotton-producing countries of West and Central Africa. To that end, numerous consultations have taken place among the relevant stakeholders, including farmers' organizations, the cotton companies, the French cotton parastatal, and the multilateral donors. Initially, the discus-sion regarding the reasons for reform took a heated tone, most likely due to misunder-standing. Later, however, a consensus emerged. As the special issue of Cotton Outlook on the cotton sector of West and Central Africa noted : "Much of the impetus for change in the regions has come from ... the World Bank [which] provides a clear outline of the main policy options now under consideration. It is encouraging to note that the sometimes acrimonious nature of the recent debate with regard to the future of cotton in Francophone producing countries appears to be giving away to a more constructive dialogue."

The World Bank along with AFD convened two major regional meetings, a techni-cal symposium on cotton sector policies in Ouagadougou in 1999 and a ministerial meet-ing in Abidjan in 2002 on the cotton reforms and the global environment for cotton trade. Furthermore, the World Bank is currently finalizing a study on long term development strategies for the cotton sector in West and Central Africa countries, focusing on 4 main ar-eas: the potential for textile and garment sector development; future trading mechanisms for an expanding cotton sector; technology generation and dissemination to sustain long term competitiveness; and raising the poverty impact of cotton cultivation. The World Bank and ICAC co-sponsored a conference on "Cotton and Global Trade Negotiations" (July 8-9, 2002) that boosted awareness of the global policy environment in the cotton market. Cotton also figures prominently in Global Agricultural Trade and Developing Coun-tries, an edited volume forthcoming from the World Bank. Numerous commodity-related briefings of the Bank's Board of Executive Directors have taken place, including one that focused exclusively on cotton .

Managing price risk in the cotton sector is another area in which the World Bank has been active. Price-risk management in the cotton sector is complicated due to the pres-ence of high basis risk-that is, low correlation between the New York Board of Trade fu-tures contract and the A Index, the main price measure of the world cotton market. In ad-dition to the basis risk, use of the New York contract by producers and traders outside the United States involves currency risk (for example, Euro/$ exchange-rate risk in the case of West and Central Africa). Despite these difficulties, the World Bank recognizes that man-aging risk, especially in an environment where cotton growers are fully exposed to the forces of demand and supply, is an issue that must be fully explored. Currently, the World Bank and ICAC are examining the existing pricing and marketing systems in selected West and Central Africa countries in order to assess the potential of various devices to manage and mitigate risk. The work will focus on two key areas. First, it will examine the existing marketing and price mechanisms and the way in which risks are currently allo-cated. Second, it will study potential risk-mitigation devices that go beyond the existing New York futures contract, such as over-the-counter or forward contracts offered by large banks, cotton merchants, and investment houses.

Organic Cotton

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Organic cotton is generally understood as cotton, from non genetically modified plants, that is to be grown without the use of any synthetic agricultural chemicals such as fertilizers or pesticides.Its production also promotes and enhances biodiversity and biological cycles.In the United States cotton plantations must also meet the requirements enforced by the National Organic Program (NOP), from the USDA, in order to be considered organic. This institution determines the allowed practices for pest control, growing, fertilizing, and handling of organic crops.As of 2007, 265,517 bales of organic cotton were produced in 24 countries and worldwide production was growing at a rate of more than 50% per year.

Advantages of Oraganic Cotton

Cotton growers who make the transition to biologically based growing practices expect not only to offer a healthier and cleaner product, but also to benefit the planet. Some of the contributions to the different ecosystems include:

• Protecting surface and groundwater quality (eliminating contaminants in surface runoff)

• Reduced risk insect and disease control by replacing insecticide with the manipulation of ecosystems

• Long-term prevention of pests through beneficial habitat planting.

• Conservation of biodiversity

• Eliminate the use of toxic chemicals used in cotton

• Organically grown crops also yield soils with higher organic matter content, thicker topsoil depth, higher polysaccharide content, and lower modulus of rupture; therefore reducing considerably soil erosion.

Organic Certification

It is required by the law that any producer wanting to label and sell a product as "organic" must meet the standards established by the Organic Food Production Act of 1990, enforced by The State organic program (SOP) This act specifies the procedures and regulations for production and handling of organic crops.

Organic System Plan

Producers must elaborate and organic production or handling system plan which must also be approved by the state certifying agency or the USDA. This plan must include careful explanation of every process held in the plantation, as well as the frequency with which they are performed. A list of substances used on the crops is also necessary, along with a description of their composition, place where they will be used, and if possible documentation of commercial availability. This inventory of substances is important for the regulation of allowed and prohibited material established by the SOP.Organic cotton growers must also provide A description of the control procedures and physical barriers established to prevent contact of organic and non organic crops on split operations and to avoid contact of organic production with prohibited substance during gestation, harvesting, and handling operations .This production plan can also be transferred to other states as long as it has already been approved by a certifying agency.

Production

Production requirements are specifically the set of changes that must be made to field and farming practices in order for a crop to be considered organic. To begin with, organic fields must go through a cleansing period of three years, without the use of any prohibited substances, before planting the first organic crop. Fields must also be equipped with physical barriers and buzzers in order to prevent contact of organic crops with any chemical substance product of surface runoff from crops near by. Producers must also strive to promote soil fertility through cultivation practices while maintaining or improving the physical, chemical, and biological condition of the soil and minimizes soil erosion. Organic growers must also implement practices to support biodiversity. Such practices include integrated pest management (IPM), which consists of the manipulation of ecosystems that benefit both the crops and the organisms that live around it. In addition to these practices, producers may only apply crop nutrients and soil amendments included on the National List of synthetic substances allowed in crop production.

Handling

Handling procedures are all the processes related to product packaging, pest control in handling processing facilities among others. The SOP allows the use of mechanical or biological methods for the purpose of retarding spoilage of products,but at the same time it prohibits the use of volatile synthetic solvents in processed products or any ingredient that is labeled as organic.

Pesticides

Since organic cotton is grown without the use of synthetic pesticides, it should contain fewer pesticides than conventional cotton. Pesticides used in the production of conventional cotton include orthophosphates such as phorate and methamidophos, endosulfan (highly toxic to farmers, but not very environmentally persistent) and aldicarb. Other pesticides persisting in cotton fields in the United States include Trifluralin, Toxaphene and DDT . Although the last two chemicals are no longer used in the United States their long breakdown period and difficulty in removal ensures their persistence. Thus even organic cotton fields may contain them since conventional cotton fields can be transitioned to organic fields in 2-3 years.

Production of Organic Cotton

Organic cotton is currently being grown successfully in many countries; the largest producers (as of 2007) are Turkey, India and China.

Organic cotton production in Africa takes place in at least 8 countries. The earliest producer (1990) was the SEKEM organization in Egypt; the farmers involved later convinced the Egyptian government to convert 400,000 hectares of conventional cotton production to integrated methods,achieving a 90% reduction in the use of synthetic pesticides in Egypt and a 30% increase in yields.

Price Developments in Cotton

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Differences in cotton prices may be attributable to a number of factors. Cotton prices vary, in particular, depending on the variety grown and the quality of the harvested cotton. For examples, ad hoc quotations are set for long-staple Egyptian cotton.

In addition, cotton-pricing mechanisms are affected by government support programmes, especially in the United States. Subsidisation regimes in several producing countries have added to the relative fragmentation of price formation for cotton. According to a communication from the Commission of the European Communities to the Council and the European Parliament (COM(2004) 87), due to subsidisation, prices paid to domestic cotton farmers were 90% and 154% above world prices in 2001/02 in the US and EU respectively.

It should be pointed out here that there is no world futures contract currently used as an international cotton price benchmark. Indeed, standard specifications of futures contracts traded on the New York Commodity Exchange correspond mainly to US cotton market fundamentals. For the same reason, quotations at the Osaka Mercantile Exchange are not representative of world prices for raw cotton. Despite a punctual reduction of basis risk due to the increasing importance of US cotton on the world sector (and on price discovery mechanism), the use of future instruments for the other origins (with the exception of Mexico, member of NAFTA and which might be in a position to use US futures as both prices are well correlated) is not always easy as spot and futures prices might suddenly diverge. Any exogenous changes (e.g. trade policy) might eventually bring on the re-emergence of an important basis risk, with devastating spillovers on cotton hedgers.

The point of departure is generally the cash price for cotton set in actual transactions or through relatively short-term contracts for forward delivery (2 to 4 months). World prices are monitored by means of price indexes (the "Cotlook Indexes", A and B) compiled by Cotlook Limited, a private UK cotton consultancy, and published daily in the Cotton Outlook.

The Indexes are intended to be representative of the price level on the international raw cotton market:

The Cotlook A-Index is the average of the cheapest five quotations from a selection of the main upland cottons traded internationally (19 origins). The prices are CIF cash against documents on arrival of a vessel at a Far East port.

The Cotlook B-Index is an average of the cheapest three quotations for "Coarse Count" cotton - commonly in use for spinning coarse count yarn over the nine origins shipped to European ports.

Overall, fluctuations in cotton prices are determined by several factors, in particular: shifts in the level of demand and supply, which reflect changes in producing countries' cotton policies.

With output exceeding demand, world cotton stocks rose steadily in the middle of the 1980s, up to 10.3 million tonnes in 1984/85 and 11.4 million tonnes, the following year. There have then been continued increases in cotton stocks during the late 1990s and early 2000s, with stocks remaining high above 10 million tonnes. The rise in cotton stocks is attributable to excess supply, notably in China and the United States, were government incentives stimulated oversupply and added to the general downward pressure on prices. Cotlook A Index declined consistently during this period, with prices falling at 35US cents/lb in August 1986. Prices stood at 48.9 US cents/lb on average in 1985/86 and 62 US cents/lb in 1986/87, compared to 69.1 US cents/lb in 1984/85 and 72.2 US cents/lb in 1987/88 respectively. Following a meagre upward movement in 1989/90 (82.2 US cents/lb), the A-Index dropped again in the early 1990s, with major downward shifts occurring in 1991/92 and 1992/93. Prices averaged 57.6 US cents/lb in 1992/93. The lowest peak was recorded in November 1992 (52.7 US cents/lb).

Several factors contributed to drive cotton prices down, including:

1) A rise in cotton production. World cotton production increased from 19 million tonnes in the 1990/91 season to 20.7 million tonnes in 1991/92, at a growth rate of 9% over the period. Production sharply increased mainly due to the huge increase of China, whose production rose from 3.8 million tonnes in 1989/90 to 5.7 million tonnes in 1991/92.

2) On the demand side of the ledger, pricing was negatively impacted as cotton consumption declined in the former Soviet Union (consumption levels, which stood at 2 million tonnes in 1990, fell to 1.9 million tonnes over the next year and to 1.8 million tonnes in 1992).

Prices performance was more robust in the following years, with prices reaching the highest peak at 92.4 US cents/lb in 1994/95. This upward movement was recorded in conjunction with a steady decrease in cotton production in a number of countries (whose supply levels were closely linked to cotton quotations). In the first half of the 1990s, production of raw cotton dropped sharply in South America (it divided by 1.5), as the cotton area reduced in size. However, this regional slowdown in production was compensated by huge increases in the largest producing countries, notably China and the United States which has been going on until early 2000s (to which added an increase in cotton area in Brazil, Turkey and Australia). This overcompensation along with only a slight increase in demand and an important rise in direct subsidies (particularly at the end of the 1990s) led the price to reduce by more than half between 1994/95 (92,4 US cents/lb) and 2001/02 (41,9 US cents/lb). In 2007/08, cotton prices have reached pretty high level prices, especially from January to May 2008 when cotton prices averaged 75.6 US cents/lb. According to ICAC, this increase may not been totally explained by the analysis of market fundamentals and especially the significant decrease in the stock-to-mill use ratio forecasted at 53% in 2007/08 against 58% the crop season before.

With one fourth of global output, cotton stocks, and consumption, China plays a major role in cotton, affecting the movements in prices.

Uses of Cotton

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The major end uses for cotton fibre include wearing apparel, home furnishings, and other industrial uses (such as medical supplies). The cotton fibre is made primarily into yearns and threads for use in the textile and apparel sectors (wearing apparel would account for approximately 60% of cotton consumption). Cotton is also used to make home furnishings, such as draperies (eventually the third major end use) or professional garments (about 5% of cotton fibre demand).

Besides traditional uses and as a result of different finishing processes that have been applied to the cotton fibre, cotton is made into specialty materials suitable for a great variety of uses. Cotton fabrics with specialty applications include, for example, fire-proof (flame resistant) apparel, which is suitable for professional uses and provides effective protection against potential risks associated with high temperature and particularly flashover. Flame resistant cotton fabrics are treated with chemicals. Without chemical treatment, cotton would burn up releasing very strong heat, just like the major part of synthetic fibres, which melt when they are exposed to high temperatures.

Cotton also finds specialty applications in medical and hygienic uses. Most notably, the fibre is used to manufacture hydrophile cotton (cotton wool), compress, gauze bandages, tampons or sanitary towels, and cotton swabs. In this field, the most suitable cotton variety is the species Gossypium herbaceum with short-staple thick fibres.

Cotton Economic Policies

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International Cotton Advisory Committee

The International Cotton Advisory Committee (hereinafter referred to as ICAC) is the authoritative forum for international discussions on matters related to the cotton economy. It met for the first time in Washington, D.C. in April 1940. Membership in ICAC is open to all members of the United Nations or of the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations, expressing an interest in cotton (although any other interested government shall be eligible to apply for membership).

As established in Article I of the Rules and Regulations adopted by the 31st Plenary Meeting (June 16, 1972), the functions of ICAC are:

1. To monitor developments affecting the world cotton situation;

2. To provide statistics and other information relating to world production, trade, consumption, stocks and prices of cotton and other textile fibres, or of textiles, insofar as they affect the cotton economy;

3. To suggest to member governments of ICAC, as and when advisable, any measures ICAC considers suitable and practicable for the furtherance of international collaboration directed towards developing and maintaining a sound world cotton economy;

4. To be the forum for international discussions on matters related to cotton prices.

ICAC meets in plenary session ("Advisory Committee") at least once per calendar year. Between Plenary Meetings, a Standing Committee represents the Advisory Committee at Washington. The Standing Committee gives practicable effect to all directions, decisions, and recommendations of the Advisory Committee. In this connection, it prepares work programs and monitors their implementation; makes recommendations for consideration by the Advisory Committee; establishes practicable cooperation with the United Nations and other international organisations concerned with matters of interest to ICAC. ICAC Secretariat, headquartered in Washington, comprises an Executive Director and his staff.

Overview of selected trade and economic policies

World cotton trade and production are highly affected by government policy intervention, notably in the US, China and the EU. Direct support to producers through price interventions is of particular concern as regards the efficiency of the global cotton market. According to ICAC, the aggregate level of direct production assistance across all subsidising countries reached US$2,7 billion in the season 2007/08 against US$5,6 billion in the 2006/07 and US$7,7 billion in 2005/06.

It is estimated that cotton subsidies artificially inflated production and depressed world cotton prices, damaging those developing countries that are heavily reliant on cotton exports for their foreign exchange earnings. Many studies have attempted to measure the impact of cotton subsidies, and have estimated the effects of subsidy removal. As highlighted in recent studies mentionned hereunder (GEM, 2007, ODI, 2004), different results are sensitive to different assumptions about the cotton market.

Trade disputes and negotiations

Within the World Trade Organization ("WTO"), action by developing countries to redress distortions in the cotton market has taken place in two different, although related, contexts: dispute settlement and negotiations.

Disputes: "US - Upland Cotton" (WT/DS267)

In 2003, Brazil was the first country to submit a formal complaint under the WTO dispute settlement mechanism about US cotton subsidies, claiming that they depressed world cotton prices and injured Brazilian farmers. Without the subsidies, according to estimates that Brazil commissioned from an American agricultural economist, United States cotton production would have fallen by 29% in 2001 - 2002 and its cotton exports would have dropped by 41%. According to these estimates, this contraction would have led to a rise in international cotton prices of 12.6%.

In a landmark ruling, the WTO dispute settlement Panel sided with Brazil on certain major substantive claims. The United States and Brazil each appealed certain issues of law and legal interpretations developed in the Panel Report. Finally, the Appelate Body upheld most of the Panel's findings.

Products at issue:

The dispute principally concerned United States subsidies in respect of upland cotton (Gossypium hirsutum). The term "upland cotton" here means raw upland cotton as well as the primary processed forms of such cotton including cotton lint and cottonseed. Upland cotton would account for approximately 98 per cent of United States cotton production.

Measures at issue:

It is worh recalling that the WTO Agreement on Subsidies and Countervailing Measures ("SCM Agreement") creates two basic categories of subsidies: those that are prohibited, and those that are actionable. Subsidies contingent, in law or in fact, on export performance ("export subsidies") are prohibited. Other domestic-support measures fall in the "actionable" category. They are subject to challenge, either through multilateral dispute settlement or through countervailing action, in the event that they cause adverse effects to the interests of another Member (including "serious prejudice" arising from export displacement).

The measures as identified in Brazil's request for the establishment of a panel were alleged prohibited or actionable subsidies provided to United States producers, users and/or exporters of upland cotton under various commodity support programmes.

Production and trade policies affecting the cotton industry

It is estimated that cotton subsidies artificially inflated production and depressed world cotton prices, damaging those developing countries that are heavily reliant on cotton exports for their foreign exchange earnings. Many studies have attempted to measure the impact of cotton subsidies, and have estimated the effects of subsidy removal. As highlighted in recent studies mentionned hereunder (GEM, 2007, ODI, 2004), different results are sensitive to different assumptions about the cotton market.

WTO Cotton Sub-Committee

WTO members on 19 November 2004 set up a body to focus on cotton, as required in the 1 August 2004 decision, sometimes called the "July Package", covering all the WTO negotiations.The agreement to create a body to focus specifically on cotton is part of WTO member governments' response to proposals from four African countries - Benin, Burkina Faso, Chad and Mali - to tackle the sector.

Cotton Quality

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In industrial uses of cotton, grades defined by the US Department of Agriculture are generally accepted as the world standards for cotton fibre quality.

United States Cotton Standards

Developments in Cotton Classification Standards

Prior to the development of official standards, cotton was marketed primarily on the basis of its variety and where it was grown, although some physical standards for cotton classification (sets of physical samples) were used privately. The United States Cotton Futures Act of 1914 authorised the Department of Agriculture to establish physical standards as a means of determining colour grade, staple length and strength, and other qualities and properties. These standards were thereafter agreed upon and accepted by the leading European cotton associations and exchanges. They were accordingly termed and referred to as the "Universal Standards for American Cotton." Indeed, when in 1923 the US Department of Agriculture (USDA) signed the Universal Cotton Standards Agreement with nine leading cotton associations in seven major European countries, the US classing system entered into increasingly global use. Under the auspices of the Agreement, the currently twenty-four signatory cotton associations representing twenty-one countries agreed to use only Universal Standards to arbitrate US grown American upland cotton.

In addition to use by signatory countries, Universal Standards are routinely used in over twenty-five non-signatory countries as the standard for US and non-US grown cottons. Whereas other countries started developing their own classification system, the USDA kept committed to continual development and improvement efforts in the area of cotton classification standards. Since 1991, USDA cotton classification has relied on instrumental measurements (in addition to or as a substitute for human vision) for fibre length, strength and length, micronaire (a measure of the cotton's fineness), colour grade, colour Rd (reflectance), colour +b (yellowness), and trash percent area. All instrument measurements currently utilised in USDA are performed by High Volume Instrument (HVI) patented by Uster Technologies, a leading company in textile quality controlling.

Given the international acceptance of HVI testing, in 1996 the Universal Cotton Standards Agreement was amended to recognize USDA-produced HVI calibration cotton standards for strength, length and uniformity index. The new standards were named Universal HVI Calibration Cotton Standards and continue to serve today as the most recognized standards for HVI calibration. USDA is continuing its effort toward global HVI standardisation.

The quality of the cotton fibre is determined by three factors, namely, the colour of ginned cotton, purity (the absence of foreign matter) and quality of the ginning process, and the length of fibres. Practically all cotton grown in the United States is classed by USDA at the request of producers. While classification is not mandatory, growers generally find it essential to marketing their crop and for participation in the USDA price support program. For additional information on USDA cotton classification standards, the reader is referred to the official USDA website sections on classification, the HVI system, and standardisation.

Colour

The colour of cotton fibres is primarily determined by conditions of temperature and/or humidity, cotton lint exposure to sunlight, and cotton varieties. Action by parasites or micro-organism, as well as technical defects in harvesting and subsequent storage and transport, may all affect the colour of cotton.

The colour of cotton ranges from white to yellowish and is classed into the groups "White", "Light Spotted", "Spotted Tinged" and "Yellow Stained", in descending order of quality. There are 25 official colour grades of American upland cotton, ranging from "Good Middling" colour through "Middling Yellow Stained" colour. In addition, there is a descriptive "Below Colour Grade" standard for 5 categories of American upland cotton. Fifteen of these grades are each within the range represented by a set of physical samples in the custody of the United States Department of Agriculture (physical standards), whereas the remaining 10 grades (the six "Light Spotted" grades, "Good Middling Spotted Colour", "Strict Middling Tinged Colour", and the two "Yellow Stained" grades), as well as the 5 "below grade" categories, are descriptions based on the physical colour grade standards (descriptive standards).

Colour |Colour Grade |Symbol

White |Good Middling |GM

White |Strict Middling | SM

White |Middling | Mid

White | Strict Low Middling | SLM

White | Low Middling | LM

White | Strict Good Ordinary | SGO

White | Good Ordinary | GO

Light Spotted | Good Middling Light Spotted | GM Lt Sp

Light Spotted |Strict Middling Light Spotted |SM Lt Sp

Light Spotted | Middling Light Spotted | Mid Lt Sp

Light Spotted | Strict Low Middling Light Spotted | SLM Lt Sp

Light Spotted | Low Middling Light Spotted | LM Lt Sp

Light Spotted | Strict Good Ordinary Light Spotted | SGO Lt Sp

Spotted | Good Middling Spotted | GM Sp

Spotted | Strict Middling Spotted | SM Sp

Spotted | Middling Spotted | Mid Sp

Spotted | Strict Low Middling Spotted | SGM Sp

Spotted | Low Middling Spotted | LM Sp

Spotted | Strict Good Ordinary Spotted | SGO Sp

Tinged | Strict Middling Tinged | SM Tg

Tinged | Middling Tinged | Mid Tg

Tinged | Strict Low Middling Tinged | SLM Tg

Tinged | Low Middling Tinged | LM Tg

Yellow stained | Strict Middling Yellow Stained | SM YS

Yellow Stained | Middling Yellow Stained | Mid YS

Below Grade | Below Grade-(Below Good BG 81 Ordinary) | BG

Below Grade | Below Grade-(Below Strict Good BG 82 Ordinary Light Spotted) | BG

Below Grade | Below Grade-(Below Strict Good BG 83 Ordinary Spotted) | BG

Below Grade | Below Grade-(Below Low BG 84 Middling Tinged) | BG

Below Grade | Below Grade-(Below Middling Yellow BG 85 Stained) | BG

HVI classing has been available on an optional basis to all growers since 1981. The colour of cotton is measured by the degree of reflectance (Rd) and yellowness (+b). Reflectance indicates how bright or dull a sample is, and yellowness indicates the degree of colour pigment. A three-digit colour code is used to indicate the colour grade. This colour grade is determined by locating the quadrant of the colour chart in which the Rd and +b values intersect. For example, a sample with an Rd value of 72 and a +b value of 9.0 would have a colour code of 41-3. In cotton classification, the colour grade of American upland cotton is determined using the HVI Colour Chart (instrument measurement), and referenced to colour grade standards that are in the custody of the USDA (the abovementioned Universal Cotton Standards used by human classers to determine official colour grade).

Leaf Grade and Extraneous Matter

Leaf grade describes the leaf or trash content in the cotton. Purity as regards the presence of foreign matter (waste such as leaves or earth) is of the utmost importance. There are seven official leaf grades for American upland cotton designated as "Leaf Grade 1" through "Leaf Grade 7". They are all represented by official physical standards in the custody of the USDA. In addition, there is a descriptive "Below Leaf Grade Cotton" designation for American upland cotton that is lower in leaf grade than Leaf Grade 7.

Official US standards for the leaf grade of American Upland cotton

Leaf Grade | Symbol | Code no.

Leaf Grade 1 | LG 1 | 1

Leaf Grade 2 | LG 2 | 2

Leaf Grade 3 | LG 3 | 3

Leaf Grade 4 | LG 4 | 4

Leaf Grade 5 | LG 5 | 5

Leaf Grade 6 | LG 6 | 6

Leaf Grade 7 | LG 7 | 7

Below Leaf Grade | BLG | 8

Other foreign matter (such as seed coat fragments), as well as the degree of smoothness or roughness with which cotton is ginned, may all affect the purity of the cotton lint. Additional explanatory terms considered necessary to describe adequately the condition of the cotton may thus be entered on classification memorandums or certificates.

An HVI trash measurement is also available, although the traditional method of classer determination for leaf grade and extraneous matter continues to be included as part of USDA's official cotton classification. Trash in raw cotton is measured by a video scanner, commonly referred to as a trash meter. It is a measure of both leaf and other elements such as grass and bark. The surface of the cotton sample is scanned by the camera and the percentage of the surface area occupied by trash particles is calculated.

Fibre Length

Fibre length is defined as the average length of the longer one-half of the fibres (upper half mean length). Fibre length is basically an inherited/genetically character of the seed variety. However, weather, nutrient deficiencies, as well as excessive cleaning and/or drying at the gin may also affect the fibre length. By affecting yarn strength and evenness, and the efficiency of the spinning process, the length of the fibre has a great influence on quality and price.

According to USDA's classing methodology, length measurement of American upland cotton is performed by HVI in accordance with standard test methods. The length of staple, measured in inches and fractions of an inch, is classed according to the following codes:

length(inches) | code | length(inches) | code

<13/16 | 24 | 1-3/16 | 38

13/16 | 26 | 1-7/32 | 39

7/8 | 28 | 1-1/4 | 40

29/32 | 29 | 1-9/32 | 41

15/16 | 30 | 1-5/16 | 42

31/32 | 31 | 1-11/32 | 43

1 | 32 | 1-3/8 | 44

1-1/32 | 33 | 1-13/32 | 45

1-1/16 | 34 | 1-7/16 | 46

1-3/32 | 35 | 1-15/32 | 47

1-1/8 | 36 | 1-1/2 | 48

1-5/32 | 37

Uniformity

Length uniformity is the ratio between the mean length and the upper half mean length of the cotton fibres within a sample. It is measured on the same beards of cotton that are used for measuring fibre length and is reported as a percentage. The higher the percentage, the greater the uniformity. If all the fibres in the sample were of the same length, the mean length and the upper half mean length would be the same, and the uniformity index would be 100. The following tabulation can be used as a guide in interpreting length uniformity results. Measurements are performed by HVI. Cotton with a low uniformity index is likely to have a high percentage of short fibres and may be difficult to process

Length Uniformity Index

Descriptive Designation | Length Uniformity

Very low | below 77

Low | 77-79

Average | 80-82

High | 83-85

Very high | Above 85

Strength

The fibre strength measurement is made by clamping and breaking a bundle of fibres from the same beards of cotton that are used for measuring fibre length. Results are reported in terms of grams per tex (a tex unit is equal to the weight in grams of 1,000 meters of fibre). It expresses the force required to break a bundle of fibres one tex unit in size. Fibre strength is largely determined by variety. Strength measurements are performed by HVI in accordance with standard test methods. The descriptive terms listed below may be helpful in explaining the measurement results.

Fibre Strength Table

Descriptive Designation | Strength (grams per tex)

weak | 23 and below

intermediate | 24-25

average | 26-28

strong | 29-30

very strong | 31 and above

Other properties that are of great importance in the industrial uses of cotton, including fibre fineness and maturity, are measured in accordance with standard test methods. Classing methodology is constantly updated to include state-of-the-art methods and equipment. Fibre properties are also measured for American pima cotton.

While the basic testing procedures for American Pima cotton are the same as for American upland cotton, different grade standards are used. For more information, refer to the Classification of Cotton (Cotton incorporated).

Global Cotton Varieties, Planting and Harvesting Periods

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Afghanistan

Planting Period : April - May

Harvesting : Oct - Dec

Staple in mm : 26-28

Variety : Acala

Argentina

Planting Period : Sep - Oct

Harvesting Period : Feb - June

Staple in mm : 24 - 28

Variety : Toba

Australia

Planting Period : Sep - Nov

Harvesting Period : Mar - June

Staple in mm :24 - 29

Variety: DPL

Brazil

Planting Period : Oct - Nov

Harvesting Period : Mar - June

Staple in mm : 26 - 28

Variety : IAC

Burkin

Planting Period : June - July

Harvesting Period : Nov - Dec

Staple in mm : 25 - 28

Variety : Allen

Camerron

Planting Period : June

Harvesting Period : Nov - Dec

Staple in mm : 25 - 28

Variety : Allen

Central Africa

Planting Period : June - July

Harvesting Period : Nov - Dec

Staple in mm : 25 - 28

Variety : Allen

Chad

Planting Period : June

Harvesting Period : Nov- Dec

Staple in mm : 25 - 28

Variety : Allen

China

Planting Period : April - June

Harvesting Period : Sep - Oct

Staple in mm : 22 - 28

Variety : Shandong, Xinjiang, MNH-93

Coted Ivorie

Planting Period : June - Aug

Harvesting Period : Oct - Jan

Staple in mm : 24 - 28

Variety : Allen

Egypt

Planting Period : March

Harvesting Period : Sep - Oct

Staple in mm : 31 - 40

Variety : Giza

Greece

Planting Period : April

Harvesting Period : Sep - Oct

Staple in mm : 26 - 28

Variety : 4S

India

Planting Period : April - Nov

Harvesting Period :Sep - Nov

Staple in mm : 16 - 38

Variety : G cot, DH 37, G cot DH 9, DDH 2,SRT 1, Renuka, LRA 5166, Anjali, Rajat

Iran

Planting Period : Mar - April

Harvesting Period : Sep - Nov

Staple in mm : 26 - 28

Variety : Coker

Israel

Planting Period : April

Harvesting Period : Sep - Oct

Staple in mm : 26 - 37

Variety : Akala

Mali

Planting Period : June - July

Harvesting Period : Oct - Nov

Staple in mm : 26 - 27

Variety : BJA

Mexico

Planting Period : March - June

Harvesting Period : Aug - Dec

Staple in mm : 26 - 29

Variety : Deltapine

Mozambique

Planting Period : Nov - Dec

Harvesting Period : April - May

Staple in mm : 25 - 29

Variety : A637

Nigeria

Planting Period : July - Aug

Harvesting Period : Dec - Feb

Staple in mm : 24 - 26

Variety : Samaru

Paraguay

Planting Period : Oct - Dec

Harvesting Period : March - April

Staple in mm : 26 - 28

Variety : Empire

Peru

Planting Period : July - Nov

Harvesting Period : Feb - Aug

Staple in mm : 26 - 28

Variety : Tanguis, Pima

Spain

Planting Period : April - May

Harvesting Period : Sep - Nov

Staple in mm : 25 - 28

Variety : Corolina

Sudan

Planting Period : Aug

Harvesting Period : June - April

Staple in mm : 27 - 30

Variety : Barakat, Acala

Syria

Planting Period : Aril - May

Harvesting Period : Sep - Nov

Staple in mm : 25 - 29

Variety : Alleppo

Togo

Planting Period : June - July

Harvesting Period : Nov - Dec

Staple in mm : 28 - 29

Variety : Allen

Uganda

Planting Period : April - June

Harvesting Period : Nov - Feb

Staple in mm : 26 - 28

Variety : Bap - Satu

USA

Planting Period : April - May

Harvesting Period : Sep - Dec

Staple in mm : 26 - 40

Variety : Acala151T, Deltapinenc, Paymaster280, Stonovilliest, Pima S7

Yemen

Planting Period : Aug - Sep

Harvesting Period : June - April

Staple in mm : 36 - 40

Variety : K4

Leading Cotton Producing Countries

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People's Republic of China : 25.3million bales

India : 20.5million bales

United States : 19.2 million bales

Pakistan : 11.7million bales

Brazil : 7.2 million bales

Uzbekistan : 5.5 million bales

Turkey : 3.2 million bales

Greece : 1.4 million bales

Turkmenistan : 1.3 million bales

Syria : 1.2 million bales

Cotton Market

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The United States and Russia shuffle the first position in the cotton production between themselves. These two, countries are closely followed by China and India while other important producers include Brazil, Egypt, Mexico and Pakistan.

United States

The most famous cotton growing area in the United States is the 'cotton belt' which refers to a large area from southern Virginia to western Texas, excluding most of Florida but including major parts of Oklahoma, Arkansas, and Tennessee as well as the adjoining corners of Missouri and Kentucky. The most important of these in area, yield and production is the Mississippi alluvial plain. The outer limit of the cotton belt corresponds to the 200 day growing season and rough topography in the north, low and uncertain rainfall in the west and poorly drained coastal marshland on the south and heavy autumn rainfall in the east.

The desert valleys of the lower Colorado basin in the California and Arizona resemble the famous Egyptian long-staple cotton growing region in respect of dry season and almost continuous sunshine. The dry climate reduces the danger of the boll weevil. Flat and fertile land, long growing season, and irrigation water are the bases for the yields per acre more than twice the national average.

Russia

Cotton growing has made remarkable progress in Russia. Also, a land and water reform was introduced in the cotton growing former Soviet republics Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Kirghizia etc. during the very first years of socialist construction. Large state and collective cotton growing farms came into being in central Asia, Kazakhstan and Transcaucasia. Advanced agrotechnical methods were introduced into cotton growing practice and extensive work of irrigation was carried out as a sequel to the radical land reform measures.

The areas's principal cotton growing base is Uzbekistan where most of the cotton production is localized and which represents more than 60% of the ex-Soviet countries cotton acreage. The second, third, fourth and the fifth places go to the credit of the Turkmen, the Azerbaijan, the Tajik, and the Kazak respectively. The Kirghiz and Armenian Union republics are also other important producers.

China

Since 1949 a great deal has been achieved with regard to cotton cultivation. Research on methods of cultivation and new varieties has not only increased output in the established and high-yielding areas of Kiangsu, Hupeh, Honan and Shensi but also has opened new or previously little developed regions. New varieties have enabled Liaoning, which has only 150-160 frost less days, to produce successfully long-staple cotton. Expansion of the growing area and consequently the output of cotton in Sinkiang are to a large extent attributable to development of irrigation.

Egypt

The Nile valley of Egypt is unquestionably the best cotton field in the world. The highly fertile alluvial soil of the Nile delta, long fertilized by the flood waters, with almost continuous sunshine and warmed by a climate in which there is a steady rise in temperature from spring to summer and steady decline from summer to autumn yields a return, nearly double the amount obtained in the United States. Largest acreage than any other crop is sown with cotton, and this represents more than 20% of the cultivated land. Increase in cotton acreage is greatly limited by the absence of irrigation facilities. However, the construction of the Aswan Dam near the Sudanese border has gone a long way in the development of cotton cultivation in Egypt. Egypt accounts for about 17% of the world's cotton exports. With regard to the export of long-staple cotton Egypt is a source of envy with its world share of about 25%. Production of long-staple cotton, developed from the Egyptian v arieties, has spread with varying degrees of success in the irrigated area of India, Pakistan, Sudan, Peru, Russia, and the southwestern United States.

Brazil

Brazil held the sixth position in the world in 1987-88 in the production of cotton. The former sugar lands of northeastern Brazil accounts for about 25% of the national output. Both long yet strong fibered 'tree cotton' and regular short-staple varieties are grown. The rest of the Brazilian output originates from Sao Paulo where coffee and cotton vary m acreage and importance according to fluctuations in world prices and demand.

Mexico

Mexico represents less than 2% of the world's cotton in 1987-88. Major producing districts lie close to the U.S. border on the Colorado River delta and along the Rio Grande, and also in Oases in the dry interior and along the west coast.

Other Latin American Countries

Peruvian cotton is noted for its excellent quality. Peru grows its cotton along the coast under irrigation. Colombia and Argentina are the second and the third largest producers of cotton in South America. Bolivia, Equador, Paraguay and Venezuela are other cotton growing countries.

As many as 70 countries are engaged in the cultivation of cotton all over the world but more than 80% of cotton is grown in only nine countries.

Cotton in India

With regard to cotton acreage, India is second to none in the world, but in total output she ranks a poor fourth; India contributes only 10% of the world production. Cotton holds the first position among the commercial crops in India if its manufacturing aspect is also taken into consideration.

India grows a large variety of cotton over a range of climatic and edaphic conditions from the sub-montane tract in the extreme north of Punjab to the Tinnevelly district of Tamil Nadu in the extreme south of India; Generally speaking it is an arid region crop and thrives best where rainfall is less than 75 cm. The soil is no less important. The sticky black cotton soil of Deccan Trap with greater moisture retaining capacity is ideal for cotton cultivation.

In India cotton is considered long-staple when the fibre is 2.2 cm and above; it is medium staple, when the tearing length of fibre varies between 22 cm and 1.7 cm, if the length of fibre is below 1.7 cm it is classed as short staple variety.

Principal Producing Areas

The major cotton producing areas are the southern United States, Russia, India, Pakistan, Egypt, China and Brazil. The less important producers are Mexico, Sudan, Peru, Uganda, Turkey and Argentina.

World Trade in Raw Cotton

The principal exporters of raw cotton are the U.S.A. Egypt, Brazil, Pakistan, Uganda, Peru and Russia. During 1987-88 cotton exports of the U.S.A., Egypt, U.S.S.R., Brazil and Pakistan were 4.6 million bales, 1.6 million bales, 1.2 million bales, 0.8 million bales and 0.6 million bales of 500 lbs. each. Mexico, Peru, other African countries and Turkey exported 0.9 million bales, 0.3 million bales, 0.9 million bales and 0.4 million bales of 500 lbs each. U.K. is the principal customer of U.S.A.'s cotton. India's imports are confined to long staple cotton of 90 thousand metric tones annually from U.S.A., Kenya, U.A.R., Tanganyika and Sudan.